Autoimmune liver diseases (AILDs) are chronic inflammatory disorders caused by dysregulated immune responses targeting biliary epithelial cells or hepatocytes. These rare conditions, including Primary Biliary Cholangitis (PBC), Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC), and Autoimmune Hepatitis (AIH), represent complex polygenic traits in which inherited susceptibility interacts with environmental and genetic factors to shape disease risk. Despite advances in molecular biology, the mechanisms underlying AILDs remain only partially understood, reflecting their rarity, heterogeneity, and multifactorial nature. Understanding how inherited variation, molecular effectors, and tissue remodeling interact is essential to improve early detection, prognosis, and therapeutic strategies. Among sources of disease variability, biological sex has emerged as an important, yet often overlooked, factor influencing immune responses and clinical outcomes. Traditionally regarded as a binary trait, sex exhibits extensive molecular diversity: gene and protein expression patterns are shaped not only by chromosomal complement and hormonal status, but also by genetic variation, life-course events, and environmental exposures. Some sex-related molecular signatures are independent of chromosomal sex, indicating that biological sex acts as a continuum rather than a simple dichotomy. These observations underscore the importance of accounting for sex-specific molecular variation when investigating complex diseases. This dissertation integrates genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and computational biology to explore polygenic susceptibility and molecular heterogeneity in AILDs, while also introducing approaches for analyzing sex-related molecular variation more broadly, including the development of the Proteomic Sex Index (PSI). In Study I, Claudin-1 (CLDN1), a tight junction protein highly expressed in hepatic epithelia, was identified as a mediator and potential therapeutic target in PSC. Multi-omic analyses, including single-cell RNA sequencing, spatial transcriptomics, and multiplex proteomics, revealed CLDN1 upregulation in cholangiocytes and periportal hepatocytes, correlating with pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic signaling. Liver-specific CLDN1 knockout and monoclonal antibody interventions in PSC mouse models reduced hepatobiliary fibrosis and cholestasis, confirming its therapeutic potential. Study II explored the contribution of archaic human introgression to autoimmune risk in PBC. Analysis of over 15,000 individuals across four international cohorts confirmed a Neanderthal-derived variant in TNPO3 (rs12531711) that modulates IRF5 expression, thereby increasing PBC susceptibility. Temporal analyses using ancient DNA indicate that this haplotype rose in frequency during the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia, highlighting the influence of evolutionary genetic factors on modern immune regulation. In Study III, single-cell RNA sequencing of intrahepatic T cells from PSC patients, integrated with GWAS data using CELLECT-MAGMA, identified Th1 and Tem/Trm cytotoxic T-cell subsets as key mediators of disease susceptibility. These populations also exhibited shared enrichment with other autoimmune diseases, including PBC, systemic lupus erythematosus, and celiac disease, indicating common immunogenetic mechanisms across AILDs and systemic autoimmunity. Study IV introduced PSI, a plasma proteomics-based measure of sex-related molecular variation derived from over 51,000 individuals. PSI captures diversity beyond chromosomal sex, correlates with sex-biased traits and diseases, and improves disease prediction, offering a tool for precision medicine. Together, these studies show how inherited, somatic, and sex-related molecular variation shape susceptibility, progression, and treatment response in AILDs, while providing tools to study sex-related molecular diversity in human populations. These findings provide a basis for precision medicine in complex diseases.
Le malattie epatiche autoimmuni (AILDs) sono disturbi infiammatori cronici causati da risposte immunitarie disregolate verso cellule epiteliali biliari o epatociti. Tra queste, la colangite biliare primitiva (CBP), la colangite sclerosante primitiva (PSC) e l’epatite autoimmune (AIH) rappresentano tratti poligenici complessi in cui suscettibilità genetica e fattori ambientali determinano il rischio di malattia. Nonostante i progressi molecolari, i meccanismi sottostanti rimangono parzialmente compresi, riflettendo rarità, eterogeneità e natura multifattoriale delle AILD. Il sesso biologico è emerso come fattore chiave di variabilità, spesso trascurato. Tradizionalmente considerato binario, il sesso presenta ampia diversità molecolare, influenzata da corredo cromosomico, ormoni, genetica, esperienze di vita ed esposizioni ambientali. Alcune firme molecolari sono indipendenti dal sesso cromosomico, suggerendo un continuum biologico. Tali osservazioni evidenziano l’importanza di considerare la variazione molecolare sesso-specifica nello studio di malattie complesse. Questa tesi integra genomica, trascrittomica, proteomica e biologia computazionale per esplorare la suscettibilità poligenica e l’eterogeneità molecolare nelle AILD, introducendo al contempo approcci per analizzare più ampiamente la variazione molecolare correlata al sesso, incluso lo sviluppo del Proteomic Sex Index (PSI). Nello Studio I, Claudina-1 (CLDN1), una proteina delle giunzioni strette altamente espressa negli epiteli epatici, è stata identificata come mediatore e potenziale bersaglio terapeutico nella PSC. Analisi multi-omiche, tra cui sequenziamento di RNA a singola cellula, trascrittomica spaziale e proteomica multiplex, hanno mostrato un aumento dell’espressione di CLDN1 nei colangiociti e negli epatociti periportali, correlato con segnali pro-infiammatori e pro-fibrotici. Knockout epatico specifico e interventi con anticorpi monoclonali nei modelli murini di PSC hanno ridotto fibrosi epatobiliare e colestasi, confermandone il potenziale terapeutico. Lo Studio II ha esplorato il contributo dell’introgressione umana arcaica al rischio autoimmune nella CBP. L’analisi di oltre 15.000 individui in quattro coorti internazionali ha confermato una variante di origine neanderthaliana in TNPO3 (rs12531711) che modula l’espressione di IRF5, aumentando la suscettibilità alla CBP. Analisi temporali basate su DNA antico indicano che questo aplotipo aumentò di frequenza durante l’età del bronzo in Europa e Asia, evidenziando l’influenza dei fattori genetici evolutivi sulla regolazione immunitaria moderna. Nello Studio III, il sequenziamento dell’RNA a singola cellula di cellule T intraepatiche di pazienti PSC, integrato con dati GWAS tramite CELLECT-MAGMA, ha identificato i sottogruppi di cellule T citotossiche Th1 e Tem/Trm come mediatori chiave della suscettibilità. Queste popolazioni hanno mostrato anche un arricchimento condiviso con altre malattie autoimmuni, tra cui CBP, lupus eritematoso sistemico e celiachia, suggerendo meccanismi immunogenetici comuni tra AILD e malattie autoimmuni sistemiche. Lo Studio IV ha introdotto il PSI, una misura basata sulla proteomica plasmatica della variazione molecolare correlata al sesso, derivata da oltre 51.000 individui. Il PSI cattura la diversità oltre il sesso cromosomico, è correlato a tratti e malattie con bias sessuale e migliora la predizione della malattia, offrendo uno strumento per la medicina di precisione. Insieme, questi studi mostrano come la variazione molecolare ereditaria, somatica e correlata al sesso influenzi suscettibilità, progressione e risposta al trattamento nelle AILD, fornendo anche strumenti per studiare la diversità molecolare correlata al sesso nelle popolazioni umane. Questi risultati costituiscono la base per la medicina di precisione nelle malattie complesse.
Caime, C (2026). Decoding genetic and proteomic diversity: from autoimmune liver diseases to sex-related biological signatures. (Tesi di dottorato, , 2026).
Decoding genetic and proteomic diversity: from autoimmune liver diseases to sex-related biological signatures
CAIME, CHIARA
2026
Abstract
Autoimmune liver diseases (AILDs) are chronic inflammatory disorders caused by dysregulated immune responses targeting biliary epithelial cells or hepatocytes. These rare conditions, including Primary Biliary Cholangitis (PBC), Primary Sclerosing Cholangitis (PSC), and Autoimmune Hepatitis (AIH), represent complex polygenic traits in which inherited susceptibility interacts with environmental and genetic factors to shape disease risk. Despite advances in molecular biology, the mechanisms underlying AILDs remain only partially understood, reflecting their rarity, heterogeneity, and multifactorial nature. Understanding how inherited variation, molecular effectors, and tissue remodeling interact is essential to improve early detection, prognosis, and therapeutic strategies. Among sources of disease variability, biological sex has emerged as an important, yet often overlooked, factor influencing immune responses and clinical outcomes. Traditionally regarded as a binary trait, sex exhibits extensive molecular diversity: gene and protein expression patterns are shaped not only by chromosomal complement and hormonal status, but also by genetic variation, life-course events, and environmental exposures. Some sex-related molecular signatures are independent of chromosomal sex, indicating that biological sex acts as a continuum rather than a simple dichotomy. These observations underscore the importance of accounting for sex-specific molecular variation when investigating complex diseases. This dissertation integrates genomics, transcriptomics, proteomics, and computational biology to explore polygenic susceptibility and molecular heterogeneity in AILDs, while also introducing approaches for analyzing sex-related molecular variation more broadly, including the development of the Proteomic Sex Index (PSI). In Study I, Claudin-1 (CLDN1), a tight junction protein highly expressed in hepatic epithelia, was identified as a mediator and potential therapeutic target in PSC. Multi-omic analyses, including single-cell RNA sequencing, spatial transcriptomics, and multiplex proteomics, revealed CLDN1 upregulation in cholangiocytes and periportal hepatocytes, correlating with pro-inflammatory and pro-fibrotic signaling. Liver-specific CLDN1 knockout and monoclonal antibody interventions in PSC mouse models reduced hepatobiliary fibrosis and cholestasis, confirming its therapeutic potential. Study II explored the contribution of archaic human introgression to autoimmune risk in PBC. Analysis of over 15,000 individuals across four international cohorts confirmed a Neanderthal-derived variant in TNPO3 (rs12531711) that modulates IRF5 expression, thereby increasing PBC susceptibility. Temporal analyses using ancient DNA indicate that this haplotype rose in frequency during the Bronze Age in Europe and Asia, highlighting the influence of evolutionary genetic factors on modern immune regulation. In Study III, single-cell RNA sequencing of intrahepatic T cells from PSC patients, integrated with GWAS data using CELLECT-MAGMA, identified Th1 and Tem/Trm cytotoxic T-cell subsets as key mediators of disease susceptibility. These populations also exhibited shared enrichment with other autoimmune diseases, including PBC, systemic lupus erythematosus, and celiac disease, indicating common immunogenetic mechanisms across AILDs and systemic autoimmunity. Study IV introduced PSI, a plasma proteomics-based measure of sex-related molecular variation derived from over 51,000 individuals. PSI captures diversity beyond chromosomal sex, correlates with sex-biased traits and diseases, and improves disease prediction, offering a tool for precision medicine. Together, these studies show how inherited, somatic, and sex-related molecular variation shape susceptibility, progression, and treatment response in AILDs, while providing tools to study sex-related molecular diversity in human populations. These findings provide a basis for precision medicine in complex diseases.| File | Dimensione | Formato | |
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phd_unimib_834627.pdf
embargo fino al 02/02/2029
Descrizione: Decoding genetic and proteomic diversity: from autoimmune liver diseases to sex-related biological signatures
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Doctoral thesis
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